8.+Literary+Terms

 Find a concise definition of your assigned word and then give an example from a text (or poem) we have read in class. Please type the definition, any additional explanation you think is needed, and the example below each term. Check out the following links as a start for definitions and explanations [|literary terms] and [|rhetoric terms]. __**Fiction**__

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antagonist - The character, force, or collection of forces in fiction or drama that opposes the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story; an opponent of the protagonist. Macbeth in Shakespeare’s play //Macbeth.// ======

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anticlimax - an event, period, or outcome that is strikingly less important or dramatic than expected ======

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 character - A character is a person presented in a dramatic or narrative work, and characterization is the process by which a writer makes that character seem real to the reader. Beowulf was a character in the book __Beowulf__. ======

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dynamic - dynamic character undergoes some kind of change because of the action in the plot. A flat character embodies one or two qualities, ideas, or traits that can be readily described in a brief summary. They are not psychologically complex characters and therefore are readily accessible to readers. ======

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flat - Embodies one or two qualities, ideas, or traits that can be readily described in a brief summary. They are not psychologically complex characters and therefore are readily accessible to readers. Some flat characters are recognized as stock characters; they embody stereotypes such as the "dumb blonde" or the "mean stepfather." They become types rather than individuals. ====== round- Round characters are more complex than flat or stock characters, and often display the inconsistencies and internal conflicts found in most real people. They are more fully developed, and therefore are harder to summarize. static - A static character does not change throughout the work, and the reader’s knowledge of that character does not grow, whereas a dynamic character undergoes some kind of change because of the action in the plot. stock - A character type that appears repeatedly in a particular literary [|//**genre**//], one which has certain conventional attributes or attitudes climax - The second part part of a plot iis the climax, the moment of greatest emotional tension in a narrative, usually marking a turning point in the plot at which the rising action reverses to become the falling action. crisis - A turning point in the action of a story that has a powerful effect on the protagonist. Opposing forces come together decisively to lead to the climax of the plot. denouement - A French term meaning "unraveling" or "unknotting," used to describe the resolution of the plot following the climax. See also plot, resolution. epilogue - <span class="sense_content">a concluding section that rounds out the design of a literary work; a speech often in verse addressed to the audience by an actor at the end of a play; also a conclusion added to a literary work such as a novel, play, or long poem. exposition - A narrative device, often used at the beginning of a work, that provides necessary background information about the characters and their circumstances. Exposition explains what has gone on before, the relationships between characters, the development of a theme, and the introduction of a conflict. See also flashback. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">falling action - (or resolution) is characterized by diminishing tensions and the resolution of the plot’s conflicts and complications. In medias res is a term used to describe the common strategy of beginning a story in the middle of the action. In this type of plot, we enter the story on the verge of some important moment. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">flashback - flashbacks and foreshadowing are examples of literary conventions. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">foil - A character in a work whose behavior and values contrast with those of another character in order to highlight the distinctive temperament of that character (usually the protagonist). In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Laertes acts as a foil to Hamlet, because his willingness to act underscores Hamlet’s inability to do so. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">foreshadowing - The introduction early in a story of verbal and dramatic hints that suggest what is to come later. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">incident - motivation - narrative voice - The "voice" that speaks or tells a story point of view - Refers to who tells us a story and how it is told. What we know and how we feel about the events in a work are shaped by the author’s choice of point of view. The teller of the story, the narrator, inevitably affects our understanding of the characters’ actions by filtering what is told through his or her own perspective. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">first person - he first-person narrator uses I and is a major or minor participant in the action. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">unreliable narrator - a narrator who describes events in the story, but seems to make obvious mistakes or misinterpretations that may be apparent to a careful reader. Unreliable narration often serves to characterize the narrator as someone foolish or unobservant third person - the third-person narrator uses he, she, or they to tell the story and does not participate in the action <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">omniscient (unlimited) - a narrator who knows everything that needs to be known about the agents and events in the story, and is free to move at will in time and place, and who has privileged access to a character's thoughts, feelings, and motives limited - a narrator who is confined to what is experienced, thought, or felt by a single character, or at most a limited number of characters objective - When the narrator reports speech and action, but never comments on the thoughts of other characters protagonist - The main character in a work, on whom the author focuses most of the narrative attention rising action - The action in a play before the climax stream-of-consciousness - The most intense use of a central consciousness in narration. The stream-of-consciousness technique takes a reader inside a character’s mind to reveal perceptions, thoughts, and feelings on a conscious or unconscious level. This technique suggests the flow of thought as well as its content; hence, complete sentences may give way to fragments as the character’s mind makes rapid associations free of conventional logic or transitions. James Joyce’s novel Ulysses makes extensive use of this narrative technique. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">subplot - The secondary action of a story, complete and interesting in its own right, that reinforces or contrasts with the main plot. There may be more than one subplot, and sometimes as many as three, four, or even more, running through a piece of fiction. Subplots are generally either analogous to the main plot, thereby enhancing our understanding of it, or extraneous to the main plot, to provide relief from it. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">theme - The central meaning or dominant idea in a literary work. A theme provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols, and other elements of a work are organized. It is important not to mistake the theme for the actual subject of the work; the theme refers to the abstract concept that is made concrete through the images, characterization, and action of the text. In nonfiction, however, the theme generally refers to the main topic of the discourse. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> __**Drama**__ act - A major division in the action of a play. The ends of acts are typically indicated by lowering the curtain or turning up the houselights. Playwrights frequently employ acts to accommodate changes in time, setting, characters onstage, or mood. In many full-length plays, acts are further divided into scenes, which often mark a point in the action when the location changes or when a new character enters. See also scene. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">aside - In drama, a speech directed to the audience that supposedly is not audible to the other characters onstage at the time. When Hamlet first appears onstage, for example, his aside "A little more than kin, and less than kind!" gives the audience a strong sense of his alienation from King Claudius. See also soliloquy. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">catastrophe - The "turning downward" of the plot in a classical tragedy. By tradition, the catastrophe occurs in the fourth act of the play after the climax. catharsis - Meaning "purgation," catharsis describes the release of the emotions of pity and fear by the audience at the end of a tragedy. In his Poetics, Aristotle discusses the importance of catharsis. The audience faces the misfortunes of the protagonist, which elicit pity and compassion. Simultaneously, the audience also confronts the failure of the protagonist, thus receiving a frightening reminder of human limitations and frailties. Ultimately, however, both these negative emotions are purged, because the tragic protagonist’s suffering is an affirmation of human values rather than a despairing denial of them. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">comedy - A work intended to interest, involve, and amuse the reader or audience, in which no terrible disaster occurs and that ends happily for the main characters. High comedy refers to verbal wit, such as puns, whereas low comedy is generally associated with physical action and is less intellectual. Romantic comedy involves a love affair that meets with various obstacles (like disapproving parents, mistaken identities, deceptions, or other sorts of misunderstandings) but overcomes them to end in a blissful union. Shakespeare’s comedies, such as A Midsummer Night’s Dream, are considered romantic comedies. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">comic relief - A humorous scene or incident that alleviates tension in an otherwise serious work. In many instances these moments enhance the thematic significance of the story in addition to providing laughter. When Hamlet jokes with the gravediggers we laugh, but something hauntingly serious about the humor also intensifies our more serious emotions. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">deus ex machina - An unrealistic or unexpected intervention to rescue the protagonists or resolve the story's conflict. The term means "The god out of the machine," and it refers to stage machinery. farce - A form of humor based on exaggerated, improbable incongruities. Farce involves rapid shifts in action and emotion, as well as slapstick comedy and extravagant dialogue. Malvolio, in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, is a farcical character. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">hamartia - A term coined by Aristotle to describe "some error or frailty" that brings about misfortune for a tragic hero. The concept of hamartia is closely related to that of the tragic flaw: both lead to the downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy. Hamartia may be interpreted as an internal weakness in a character (like greed or passion or hubris); however, it may also refer to a mistake that a character makes that is based not on a personal failure, but on circumstances outside the protagonist’s personality and control. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">hero - hero or heroine, often called the protagonist, is the central character who engages the reader’s interest and empathy. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">hubris - Excessive pride or self-confidence that leads a protagonist to disregard a divine warning or to violate an important moral law. In tragedies, hubris is a very common form of hamartia. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">monologue - A type of lyric poem in which a character (the speaker) addresses a distinct but silent audience imagined to be present in the poem in such a way as to reveal a situation and, often unintentionally, some aspect of his or her temperament or personality. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">prologue - 1) In original Greek tragedy, the prologue was either the action or a set of introductory speeches before the first entry (parados ) of the chorus. (2) In later literature, a prologue is a section of any introductory material before the first chapter or the main material of a prose work, or any such material before the first stanza of a poetic work. scene - In drama, a scene is a subdivision of an act. In modern plays, scenes usually consist of units of action in which there are no changes in the setting or breaks in the continuity of time. According to traditional conventions, a scene changes when the location of the action shifts or when a new character enters. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">soliloquy - A dramatic convention by means of which a character, alone onstage, utters his or her thoughts aloud. Playwrights use soliloquies as a convenient way to inform the audience about a character’s motivations and state of mind. Shakespeare’s Hamlet delivers perhaps the best known of all soliloquies, which begins: "To be or not to be." <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">tragedy - A story that presents courageous individuals who confront powerful forces within or outside themselves with a dignity that reveals the breadth and depth of the human spirit in the face of failure, defeat, and even death. Tragedies recount an individual’s downfall; they usually begin high and end low. Shakespeare is known for his tragedies, including Macbeth, King Lear, Othello, and Hamlet. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">tragic flaw - an error or defect in the tragic hero that leads to his downfall, such as greed, pride, or ambition. This flaw may be a result of bad character, bad judgment, an inherited weakness, or any other defect of character. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">villain - T he character, force, or collection of forces in fiction or drama that opposes the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story; an opponent of the protagonist, such as Claudius in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> __**Poetry**__ alliteration - The repetition of the same consonant sounds in a sequence of words, usually at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable: "descending dew drops"; "luscious lemons." Alliteration is based on the sounds of letters, rather than the spelling of words; for example, "keen" and "car" alliterate, but "car" and "cite" do not. Used sparingly, alliteration can intensify ideas by emphasizing key words, but when used too self-consciously, it can be distracting, even ridiculous, rather than effective. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">assonance - The repetition of internal vowel sounds in nearby words that do not end the same, for example, "asleep under a tree," or "each evening." Similar endings result in rhyme, as in "asleep in the deep." Assonance is a strong means of emphasizing important words in a line. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">blank verse - Unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse is the English verse form closest to the natural rhythms of English speech and therefore is the most common pattern found in traditional English narrative and dramatic poetry from Shakespeare to the early twentieth century. Shakespeare’s plays use blank verse extensively. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">cacophony - Language that is discordant and difficult to pronounce, such as this line from John Updike’s "Player Piano": "never my numb plunker fumbles." Cacophony ("bad sound") may be unintentional in the writer’s sense of music, or it may be used consciously for deliberate dramatic effect. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">cadence - The melodic pattern just before the end of a sentence or phrase--for instance an interrogation or an exhortation. More generally, the natural rhythm of language depending on the position of stressed and unstressed syllables. Cadence is a major component of individual writers' styles. caesura - A pause within a line of poetry that contributes to the rhythm of the line. A caesura can occur anywhere within a line and need not be indicated by punctuation. In scanning a line, caesuras are indicated by a double vertical line (||). <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">conceit - An elaborate or unusual comparison--especially one using unlikely metaphors, simile, hyperbole, and contradiction. consonance - A common type of near rhyme that consists of identical consonant sounds preceded by different vowel sounds: home, same; worth, breath. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">controlling image - a literary device employing repetition so as to stress the theme of a work or a particular symbol. couplet - Two consecutive lines of poetry that usually rhyme and have the same meter. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">dirge - any composition resembling such a song or tune in character, as a poem of lament for the dead or solemn, mournful music: //Tennyson's dirge for the Duke of Wellington. 2)// mournful or elegiac poem or other literary work. dissonance - dramatic monologue - A type of lyric poem in which a character (the speaker) addresses a distinct but silent audience imagined to be present in the poem in such a way as to reveal a dramatic situation and, often unintentionally, some aspect of his or her temperament or personality. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">elegy - A mournful, contemplative lyric poem written to commemorate someone who is dead, often ending in a consolation. Tennyson’s In Memoriam, written on the death of Arthur Hallam, is an elegy. Elegy may also refer to a serious meditative poem produced to express the speaker’s melancholy thoughts. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">end-stopped line - A poetic line that has a pause at the end. End-stopped lines reflect normal speech patterns and are often marked by punctuation. The first line of Keats’s "Endymion" is an example of an end-stopped line; the natural pause coincides with the end of the line, and is marked by a period: <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">enjambment - In poetry, when one line ends without a pause and continues into the next line for its meaning. This is also called a run-on line. The transition between the first two lines of Wordsworth’s poem "My Heart Leaps Up" demonstrates enjambment: My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">epic - A long narrative poem, told in a formal, elevated style, that focuses on a serious subject and chronicles heroic deeds and events important to a culture or nation. Milton’s Paradise Lost, which attempts to "justify the ways of God to man," is an epic. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">euphony - Euphony ("good sound") refers to language that is smooth and musically pleasant to the ear. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">foot - The metrical unit by which a line of poetry is measured. A foot usually consists of one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables. An iambic foot, which consists of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable ("away"), is the most common metrical foot in English poetry. A trochaic foot consists of one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable ("lovely"). An anapestic foot is two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed one ("understand"). A dactylic foot is one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones ("desperate"). <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">free verse (open form) - Also called open form poetry, free verse refers to poems characterized by their nonconformity to established patterns of meter, rhyme, and stanza. Free verse uses elements such as speech patterns, grammar, emphasis, and breath pauses to decide line breaks, and usually does not rhyme. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">heroic couplet - A heroic couplet is a couplet written in rhymed iambic pentameter. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">iamb - A unit or foot of poetry that consists of a lightly stressed syllable followed by a heavily stressed syllable. Some words in English naturally form iambs, such as // behold, restore, amuse, arise, awake, return, Noel, support, depict, destroy, inject, inscribe, insist, inspire, unwashed, // and so on. iambic pentameter - A metrical pattern in poetry which consists of five iambic feet per line. (An iamb, or iambic foot, consists of one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.) <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">image - A word, phrase, or figure of speech (especially a simile or a metaphor) that addresses the senses, suggesting mental pictures of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, feelings, or actions. Images offer sensory impressions to the reader and also convey emotions and moods through their verbal pictures. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">imagery - A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Imagery is not limited to visual imagery; it also includes auditory (sound), tactile (touch), thermal (heat and cold), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and kinesthetic sensation (movement). in media res - n medias res is a term used to describe the common strategy of beginning a story in the middle of the action. In this type of plot, we enter the story on the verge of some important moment. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">lyric - A type of brief poem that expresses the personal emotions and thoughts of a single speaker. It is important to realize, however, that although the lyric is uttered in the first person, the speaker is not necessarily the poet. There are many varieties of lyric poetry, including the dramatic monologue, elegy, haiku, ode, and sonnet forms. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">measure - meter - When a rhythmic pattern of stresses recurs in a poem, it is called meter. Metrical patterns are determined by the type and number of feet in a line of verse; combining the name of a line length with the name of a foot concisely describes the meter of the line. Rising meter refers to metrical feet which move from unstressed to stressed sounds, such as the iambic foot and the anapestic foot. Falling meter refers to metrical feet which move from stressed to unstressed sounds, such as the trochaic foot and the dactylic foot. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">octave - A poetic stanza of eight lines, usually forming one part of a sonnet. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">ode - A relatively lengthy lyric poem that often expresses lofty emotions in a dignified style. Odes are characterized by a serious topic, such as truth, art, freedom, justice, or the meaning of life; their tone tends to be formal. There is no prescribed pattern that defines an ode; some odes repeat the same pattern in each stanza, while others introduce a new pattern in each stanza. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">persona - a persona is a mask. In literature, a persona is a speaker created by a writer to tell a story or to speak in a poem. A persona is not a character in a story or narrative, nor does a persona necessarily directly reflect the author’s personal voice. A persona is a separate self, created by and distinct from the author, through which he or she speaks. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">quatrain - A four-line stanza. Quatrains are the most common stanzaic form in the English language; they can have various meters and rhyme schemes. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">refrain - A line or set of lines at the end of a stanza or section of a longer poem or song--these lines repeat at regular intervals in other stanzas or sections of the same work. Sometimes the repetition involves minor changes in wording. A refrain might consist of a nonsense word (such as Shakespeare's "With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino" in the song from //As You Like It//), a single word (such as "Nevermore" in Poe's "The Raven"), or even an entire separate stanza that is repeated alternating with each stanza in the poem. If the refrain is meant to be sung by all the auditors listening, such as in Burns' "Auld Lang Syne," the refrain is often called a chorus. The device is ancient. Examples are found in the Egyptian //Book of the Dead//, the Bible, Greek, Latin, and Provençal verse, and in many, many ballads. repetition - the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device rhyme - The repetition of identical or similar concluding syllables in different words, most often at the ends of lines. Rhyme is predominantly a function of sound rather than spelling; thus, words that end with the same vowel sounds rhyme, for instance, day, prey, bouquet, weigh, and words with the same consonant ending rhyme, for instance vain, feign, rein, lane. Words do not have to be spelled the same way or look alike to rhyme. In fact, words may look alike but not rhyme at all. This is called eye rhyme, as with bough and cough, or brow and blow. End rhyme is the most common form of rhyme in poetry; the rhyme comes at the end of the lines.

<span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">end - Rhyme in which the last word at the end of each verse is the word that rhymes. exact - Exact rhyme or perfect rhyme is rhyming two words in which both the consonant sounds and vowel sounds match to create a rhyme. The term "exact" is sometimes used more specifically to refer to two homophones that are spelled dissimilarly but pronounced identically at the end of lines. Since poetry is traditionally spoken aloud, the effect of rhyme depends upon sound rather than spelling, even words that are spelled dissimilarly can rhyme. Examples of this sort of exact rhyme include the words // pain/pane  // //, time/thyme, rein/reign// ,  and // bough/bow //. However, it is equally common to use the term // exact rhyme // in reference to any close rhyme such as // line/mine //, //dig/pig// , and so on. external - feminine - Femi<span style="background-color: rgb(255,255,255);">nine rhyme <span class="�225�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding-right: 0pt; display: inline; padding-left: 0pt; padding-bottom: 0pt; color: black; padding-top: 0pt; background-color: yellow;"> consists of a rhymed stressed syllable followed by one or more identical unstressed syllables, as in butter, clutter; gratitude, attitude; quivering, shivering. All the examples so far have illustrated exact <span class="�226�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding-right: 0pt; display: inline; padding-left: 0pt; padding-bottom: 0pt; color: black; padding-top: 0pt; background-color: yellow;"> rhymes, because they share the same stressed vowel sounds as well as sharing sounds that follow the vowel. <span style="background-color: rgb(255,255,255);"> <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">internal - places at least one of the rhymed words within the line, as in "Dividing and gliding and sliding" or "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud." <span style="background-color: rgb(255,255,255);"><span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">masculine - Occurs where rhyming words of more than one syllable, when the same sound occurs in a final stressed syllable, as in defend and contend, betray and away. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Near (slant) - (also called off rhyme slant rhyme<span class="�227�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding-right: 0pt; display: inline; padding-left: 0pt; padding-bottom: 0pt; color: black; padding-top: 0pt; background-color: yellow;"> and approximate rhyme<span class="�228�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding-right: 0pt; display: inline; padding-left: 0pt; padding-bottom: 0pt; color: black; padding-top: 0pt; background-color: yellow;"> ), the sounds are almost but not exactly alike. A common form of near rhyme <span class="�229�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding-right: 0pt; display: inline; padding-left: 0pt; padding-bottom: 0pt; color: black; padding-top: 0pt; background-color: yellow;"> is consonance, which consists of identical consonant sounds preceded by different vowel sounds: home, same; worth, breath. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">rhythm - A term used to refer to the recurrence of stressed and unstressed sounds in poetry. Depending on how sounds are arranged, the rhythm of a poem may be fast or slow, choppy or smooth. Poets use rhythm to create pleasurable sound patterns and to reinforce meanings. Rhythm in prose arises from pattern repetitions of sounds and pauses that create looser rhythmic effects. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">scansion - The process of measuring the stresses in a line of verse in order to determine the metrical pattern of the line. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">sestet - A stanza consisting of exactly six lines. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">sonnet - A fixed form of lyric poetry that consists of fourteen lines, usually written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic types of sonnets, the Italian and the English. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">English - The English sonnet, also known as the Shakespearean sonnet, is organized into three quatrains and a couplet, which typically rhyme abab cdcd efef gg. This rhyme scheme is more suited to English poetry because English has fewer rhyming words than Italian. English sonnets, because of their four-part organization, also have more flexibility with respect to where thematic breaks can occur. Frequently, however, the most pronounced break or turn comes with the concluding couplet, as in Shakespeare’s "Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?" <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Italian - The Italian sonnet, also known as the Petrarchan sonnet, is divided into an octave, which typically rhymes abbaabba, and a sestet, which may have varying rhyme schemes. Common rhyme patterns in the sestet are cdecde, cdcdcd, and cdccdc. Very often the octave presents a situation, attitude, or problem that the sestet comments upon or resolves, as in John Keats’s "On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer." <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">spondee - s a foot consisting of two stressed syllables ("dead set"), but is not a sustained metrical foot and is used mainly for variety or emphasis. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">stanza - In poetry, stanza refers to a grouping of lines, set off by a space, that usually has a set pattern of meter and rhyme. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">stress - The emphasis, or accent, given a syllable in pronunciation. <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">trochee - A two-syllable unit or foot of poetry consisting of a heavy stress followed by a light stress. Many words in English naturally form trochees, including // happy, hammer, Pittsburgh, nugget, double, incest, injure, roses, hippie, Bubba, "beat it," clever, dental, dinner, shatter, pitcher, Cleveland, chosen, planet, chorus, widow, bladder, cuddle, slacker //, and so on. volta - Also called a **turn**, a volta is a sudden change in thought, direction, or emotion near the conclusion of a sonnet.

**Figures of Speech** allusion - ** A brief reference to a person, place, thing, event, or idea in history or literature. Allusions conjure up biblical authority, scenes from Shakespeare’s plays, historic figures, wars, great love stories, and anything else that might enrich an author’s work. Allusions imply reading and cultural experiences shared by the writer and reader, functioning as a kind of shorthand whereby the recalling of something outside the work supplies an emotional or intellectual context, such as a poem about current racial struggles calling up the memory of Abraham Lincoln. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">apostrophe - ** An address, either to someone who is absent and therefore cannot hear the speaker or to something nonhuman that cannot comprehend. Apostrophe often provides a speaker the opportunity to think aloud. **<span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">euphemism - ** The substitution of a mild or less negative word or phrase for a harsh or blunt one, as in the use of "pass away" instead of "die." The basic psychology of euphemistic language is the desire to put something bad or embarrassing in a positive (or at least neutral light). Thus many terms referring to death, sex, crime, and excremental functions are euphemisms. Since the euphemism is often chosen to disguise something horrifying, it can be exploited by the satirist through the use of irony and exaggeration. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">hyperbole - **the counterpart of understatement, deliberately exaggerates conditions for emphasis or effect. In formal writing the hyperbole must be clearly intended as an exaggeration, and should be carefully restricted. That is, do not exaggerate everything, but treat hyperbole like an exclamation point, to be used only once a year.** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">litotes - **a particular form of understatement, is generated by denying the opposite or contrary of the word which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement, or becomes an intensifying expression.** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">metaphor - ** A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things, without using the word like or as. Metaphors assert the identity of dissimilar things, as when Macbeth asserts that life is a "brief candle." Metaphors can be subtle and powerful, and can transform people, places, objects, and ideas into whatever the writer imagines them to be. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">extended - ** An extended metaphor is a sustained comparison in which part or all of a poem consists of a series of related metaphors. Robert Francis’s poem "Catch" relies on an extended metaphor that compares poetry to playing catch. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">controlling - ** A controlling metaphor runs through an entire work and determines the form or nature of that work. The controlling metaphor in Anne Bradstreet’s poem "The Author to Her Book" likens her book to a child. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">metonymy - ** Metonymy is a type of metaphor in which something closely associated with a subject is substituted for it. In this way, we speak of the "silver screen" to mean motion pictures, "the crown" to stand for the king, "the White House" to stand for the activities of the president. See also figures of speech, personification, simile. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">onomatopoeia - ** A term referring to the use of a word that resembles the sound it denotes. Buzz, rattle, bang, and sizzle all reflect onomatopoeia. Onomatopoeia can also consist of more than one word; writers sometimes create lines or whole passages in which the sound of the words helps to convey their meanings. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">oxymoron - ** A condensed form of paradox in which two contradictory words are used together, as in "sweet sorrow" or "original copy." See also paradox. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">personification - ** A form of metaphor in which human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman things. Personification offers the writer a way to give the world life and motion by assigning familiar human behaviors and emotions to animals, inanimate objects, and abstract ideas. For example, in Keats’s "Ode on a Grecian Urn," the speaker refers to the urn as an "unravished bride of quietness." See also metaphor. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">simile - **a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc.) known to the reader.** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">symbol - ** A person, object, image, word, or event that evokes a range of additional meaning beyond and usually more abstract than its literal significance. Symbols are educational devices for evoking complex ideas without having to resort to painstaking explanations that would make a story more like an essay than an experience. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">synecdoche - ** Synecdoche is a kind of metaphor in which a part of something is used to signify the whole, as when a gossip is called a "wagging tongue," or when ten ships are called "ten sails." Sometimes, synecdoche refers to the whole being used to signify the part, as in the phrase "Boston won the baseball game." Clearly, the entire city of Boston did not participate in the game; the whole of Boston is being used to signify the individuals who played and won the game. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">understatement - ** The opposite of hyperbole, understatement (or litotes) refers to a figure of speech that says less than is intended. Understatement usually has an ironic effect, and sometimes may be used for comic purposes, as in Mark Twain’s statement, "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated." See also hyperbole, irony. ** <span style="font-size: 120%; color: rgb(0,39,255); font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">
<span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">ambiguity - ** Allows for two or more simultaneous interpretations of a word, phrase, action, or situation, all of which can be supported by the context of a work. Deliberate ambiguity can contribute to the effectiveness and richness of a work, for example, in the open-ended conclusion to Hawthorne’s "Young Goodman Brown." However, unintentional ambiguity obscures meaning and can confuse readers. ** <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">atmosphere - dialogue - ** The verbal exchanges between characters. Dialogue makes the characters seem real to the reader or audience by revealing firsthand their thoughts, responses, and emotional states. See also diction. ** <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">diction - ** A writer’s choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language, which combine to help create meaning. ** <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">colloquial (informal) - ** Refers to a type of informal diction that reflects casual, conversational language and often includes slang expressions. See also diction. Formal diction consists of a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of language; it follows the rules of syntax exactly and is often characterized by complex words and lofty tone. Middle diction maintains correct language usage, but is less elevated than formal diction; it reflects the way most educated people speak. ** <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">connotation - the associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">denotation - the explicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or expression, as distinguished from the ideas or meanings associated with it or suggested by it; the association or set of associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language, as distinguished from those elicited for any individual speaker because of personal experience. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">dialect - a provincial, rural, or socially distinct variety of a language that differs from the standard language, esp. when considered as substandard. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">formal - being a matter of form only; perfunctory <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">epigram - any witty, ingenious, or pointed saying tersely expressed. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">invective - vehement or violent denunciation, censure, or reproach. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">inversion - Rhetoric. reversal of the usual or natural order of words; anastrophe. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">irony - the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">dramatic - characteristic of or appropriate to the drama, esp. in involving conflict or contrast; vivid <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">situational - manner of being situated; location or position with reference to environment <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">verbal - expressed in spoken words; oral rather than written <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">mood - a set of categories for which the verb is inflected in many languages, and that is typically used to indicate the syntactic relation of the clause in which the verb occurs to other clauses in the sentence, or the attitude of the speaker toward what he or she is saying, as certainty or uncertainty, wish or command, emphasis or hesitancy. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">paradox - a statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">proverb - a short popular saying, usually of unknown and ancient origin, that expresses effectively some commonplace truth or useful thought; adage; saw. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">pun - the humorous use of a word or phrase so as to emphasize or suggest its different meanings or applications, or the use of words that are alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning; a play on words. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">sarcasm - harsh or bitter derision or irony; a sharply ironical taunt; sneering or cutting remark <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">satire - A literary mode based on criticism of people and society through ridicule. The satirist aims to reduce the practices attacked by laughing scornfully at them--and being witty enough to allow the reader to laugh, also. Ridicule, irony, exaggeration, and several other techniques are almost always present. The satirist may insert serious statements of value or desired behavior, but most often he relies on an implicit moral code, understood by his audience and paid lip service by them. The satirist's goal is to point out the hypocrisy of his target in the hope that either the target or the audience will return to a real following of the code. Thus, satire is inescapably moral even when no explicit values are promoted in the work, for the satirist works within the framework of a widely spread value system. Many of the techniques of satire are devices of comparison, to show the similarity or contrast between two things. A list of incongruous items, an oxymoron, metaphors, and so forth are examples. See[| "The Purpose and Method of Satire"] for more information. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">slang - very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is characteristically more metaphorical, playful, elliptical, vivid, and ephemeral than ordinary language, as Hit the road. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">tone - The writer's attitude toward his readers and his subject; his mood or moral view. A writer can be formal, informal, playful, ironic, and especially, optimistic or pessimistic. While both Swift and Pope are satirizing much the same subjects, there is a profound difference in their tone. <span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);"> voice - a set of categories for which the verb is inflected in some languages, as Latin, and which is typically used to indicate the relation of the verbal action to the subject as performer, undergoer, or beneficiary of its action; a set of syntactic devices in some languages, as English, that is similar to this set in function. <span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);"> =<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);"> ** Form ** = =<span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);"> = <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">allegory - A figurative work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical meaning. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">anecdote - a short account of a particular incident or event of an interesting or amusing nature, often biographical. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">diary - a daily record, usually private, esp. of the writer's own experiences, observations, feelings, attitudes, etc. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">discourse - communication of thought by words; talk; conversation: earnest and intelligent discourse <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">argumentation - <span style="color: rgb(0,0,0);">A piece of work that engages in a debate or persuasive tone. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">description - a statement, picture in words, or account that describes; descriptive representation <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">exposition - writing or speech primarily intended to convey information or to explain; a detailed statement or explanation <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">narration - The act of telling or relating the particulars of an event; rehearsal; recital. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">essay - a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">formal - made or done in accordance with procedures that ensure validity <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">humorous - full of or characterized by humor; funny <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">informal - not according to the prescribed, official, or customary way or manner; irregular; unofficial <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">fable - a short tale to teach a moral lesson, often with animals or inanimate objects as characters; apologue <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">genre - A type or class <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">novel - a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length and complexity, portraying characters and usually presenting a sequential organization of action and scenes. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">parable - a statement or comment that conveys a meaning indirectly by the use of comparison, analogy, or the like. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">prose - the ordinary form of spoken or written language, without metrical structure, as distinguished from poetry or verse. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">rhetorical forms - Of or pertaining to rhetoric; according to, or exhibiting, rhetoric; oratorical <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">ethos - the fundamental character or spirit of a culture; the underlying sentiment that informs the beliefs, customs, or practices of a group or society; dominant assumptions of a people or period <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">pathos - the quality or power in an actual life experience or in literature, music, speech, or other forms of expression, of evoking a feeling of pity or compassion. <span style="font-size: 110%; color: rgb(0,0,255);">logos - In Stoicism, the active, material, rational principle of the cosmos; nous. Identified with God, it is the source of all activity and generation and is the power of reason residing in the human soul. <span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);"> verse - a succession of metrical feet written, printed, or orally composed as one line; one of the lines of a poem. <span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">
 * Syntax **

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<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">antithesis - **establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure. Human beings are inveterate systematizers and categorizers, so the mind has a natural love for antithesis, which creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas:**======
 * To err is human; to forgive, divine. --Pope
 * That short and easy trip made a lasting and profound change in Harold's outlook.
 * That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong

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<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">complex sentence - a sentence containing one or more dependent clauses in addition to the main clause, as //When the bell rings// (dependent clause), //walk out// (main clause). ======

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<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">ellipsis - (1) In its oldest sense as a rhetorical device, //ellipsis// refers to the artful omission of a word implied by a previous clause. For instance, an author might write, "The American soldiers killed eight civilians, and the French eight." The writer of the sentence has left out the word //soldiers// after French, and the word //civilians// after //eight//. 2) In its more modern sense, ellipsis refers to a punctuation mark indicated by three periods to indicate material missing from a quotation . . . like so. This mark is common in MLA format for indicating partial quotations. ======

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<span style="color: rgb(0,0,255);">inverted sentence - any sentence in which the normal word order is reversed, with the verb coming before the subject or the complete subject and predicate coming after another clause ======